exam 4 periodical

Differentiate the nutritional value of an animal tissue to a plant tissue as food source based on macromolecules and micronutrients content.

Animal Tissue

The animal tissue assists in locomotion and is capable of feeding itself in a heterotrophic mode. As a result of their continuous movement, these tissues require greater energy and maintenance. Different breeds, foods, and weather conditions affect the nutritional value of each piece of the animal's meat in a significant way. Containing more connective tissues reduces the number of essential amino acids in the meat, making it less nutritious compared to meat with less connective tissues, which enhances the absorption of nutrients and its nutritional value.

Both

To release chemical energy they use cellular respiration. A person's overall well-being is enhanced by consuming both plants and plant tissues. Both of them are beneficial to the body system in that they offer a nutritional value on macromolecules and micronutrients.

Plant Tissue

These tissue offers structural support while also producing food for themselves through the processes of photosynthesis. When it comes to plant’s structure and nutrients, the cell walls have a significant impact on their nutritional content. Also, this tissue requires less energy and maintenance since plants do not require movement. For human’s nutrition, plants are essential sources of macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, etc), dietary fibers, micronutrients (minerals and vitamins), and phytochemicals. Fiber consumption is increased, cardiovascular disease risk is reduced, and weight management is improved just by eating plant-based foods.



The nervous system has a number of diseases and disorders.

Parkinson’s disease

Cause of disease
* It is caused by both genetics and environmental factors. Also, it is caused by a loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain called the substantia nigra.
Result
* This disease may result in Tremor (trembling) in hands, arms, legs, jaw, or head, Stiffness of the limbs and trunk, slowness of movement, and Impaired balance and coordination.
Remedy
* There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease. However, medications and other treatments can help relieve some of its symptoms like levodopa, dopamine agonists, amantadine, and more.

Bell’s Palsy

Cause of disease
* The exact cause of this is unknown, but many medical researchers believe it’s most likely triggered by a viral infection.
Result
* This disease may result in Disordered movement of the muscles that control facial expressions, Loss of the sense of taste on the front two-thirds of the tongue, Inability to close the eye on the affected side of the face, and more.
Remedy
* Most people with Bell's palsy recover fully, with or without treatment. The doctor may suggest medications or physical therapy to help speed the recovery.

Multiple sclerosis

Cause of disease
* Experts still don’t know for sure what causes it but there are some factors that may trigger it. Like exposure to certain viruses or bacteria, where you live, how your immune system functions, and gene mutations.
Result
* This disease may result in Problems with balance when walking, hearing loss, tingling or numbness, urinary problems, and more.
Remedy
* There is currently no cure for this disease. The treatment focuses on managing symptoms, reducing relapses, and slowing the disease’s progression. It includes corticosteroids, plasma exchange (plasmapheresis), and more.

Epilepsy

Cause of disease
* Epilepsy has no identifiable cause in about half the people with the condition. On the other half, a variety of factors can trigger it such as genetic influence, head trauma, brain abnormalities, and more.
Result
* This disorder may result in loss of consciousness or awareness, Stiff muscles, breathing problems or breathing stops, not responding to noise or words for brief periods, periods of rapid eye blinking and staring, and more.
Remedy
* Treatment can help most people with epilepsy have fewer seizures, or stop having seizures completely. Like anti-epileptic drugs, brain surgery, and some use natural treatments such as herbal treatments, vitamins, and more.

Alzheimer disease

Cause of disease
* Scientists believe that for most people, Alzheimer's disease is caused by a combination of genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors that affect the brain over time. Also, it is thought to be caused by the abnormal build-up of proteins in and around brain cells.
Result
* This disease may result in memory loss that disrupts daily life, challenges in planning or solving problems, confusion with time or place, changes in mood and personality, and more.
Remedy
* Right now, there is no cure for this disease. Current Alzheimer's medications can help for a time with memory symptoms and other cognitive changes. Also, aducanumab is the only disease-modifying medication currently approved to treat Alzheimer’s.



lgG
Main blood antibody, neutralizes toxins, opsonization
provides long term protection because it persists for months and years after the presence of the antigen that has triggered their production.
protect against bacteria, viruses, neutralize bacterial toxins, trigger complement protein systems, and bind antigens to enhance the effectiveness of phagocytosis.
It is a large globular proteins with a molecular weight of about 150 kDa made of four peptide chains. It contains two identical γ (gamma) heavy chains of about 50 kDa and two identical light chains of about 25 kDa, thus a tetrameric quaternary structure.

lgE
The antibody of allergy and anti-parasitic activity
To bind to mast cells and basophils which participate in the immune response
its purpose is to stop parasites
It is synthesized by plasma cells. Monomers of IgE consist of two heavy chains (ε chain) and two light chains, with the ε chain containing 4 Ig-like constant domains (Cε1-Cε4).

lgA
Secreted into mucus, tears, and saliva
to bind antigens on microbes before they invade tissues. It aggregates the antigens and keeps them in the secretions so when the secretion is expelled, so is the antigen.
the first defense for mucosal surfaces such as the intestines, nose, and lungs.
It is consist of heavy (H) and light (L) chains. Each H chain is comprised of the constant region (Cα1, Cα2, Cα3), hinge region, and the Variable (V) region. Light chains consist of the CL and Vκ or Vλ elements.

lgM
Primary response fixes complement.
It enhances the ingestion of cells by phagocytosis
It is constructed of five or six units (i.e. mostly as pentamers but also hexamers occur) which are each comprised of two heavy-chains (μ-chains) and two light chains, bound together by disulfide bonds and a so-called J-chain.

lgD
B cell receptor
 present on the surface of B cells and plays a role in the induction of antibody production.
It is composed of heavy and light polypeptide chains, has a sedimentation coefficient of approximately 7S, and can be fragmented into Fab and Fc fragments. Also, expressed in the plasma membranes of immature B-lymphocytes.



Cite reasons as to why some animals use asexual reproduction.

* Genetically identical offspring can be produced by a single individual and enormous numbers can be produced rapidly.
* The animals may pass on their genes without spending time and energy searching for a partner, which can help sustain a species in unfortunate conditions.
* The following generation is guaranteed to inherit the positive genetic traits of an animal.

Cite an example of hermaphrodites and their means of preventing self-fertilization.

* Snails - To get impregnated, they need to locate a mate even though they have both male and female reproductive organs but their organs don't develop at the same time. The mature female reproductive organ of the snail is injected with sperm bundles exchanged by the snail's matured male reproductive organ.
* Worms - Worms have both male and female reproductive organs, just like snails. During the mating ritual, the worms join together with their heads facing in opposing directions and release sperm and eggs between themselves into a single cocoon.

Cite specialized feeding mechanism in different organism.

* Filter feeders/feeding - collecting nutrients from water particles
* Substrate feeders/feeding - consuming nutrients from their foods
* Fluid feeders/feeding - acquiring nutrition from other organism's fluids
* Bulk feeders/feeding - obtaining nutrients by eating a large piece of food




Using the figure, explain how a countercurrent flow becomes more beneficial than a concurrent flow in terms of respiratory gas exchange.

	A countercurrent flow becomes more beneficial than a concurrent flow in terms of respiratory gas exchange by ensuring that a gradient of concentration maintains throughout the whole surface of the gas exchange. The flow in terms of respiratory gas exchange diagram showed, that the concurrent flow is the two fluids containing various concentrations of a diffusible substance flowing in the same direction while the countercurrent flow is the two fluids containing various concentrations of a diffusible substance flowing in the opposite directions. Let's say that it is a case of fish respiration, the fluid in the upper section is water, the fluid in the lower section is blood, and the substance being exchanged is oxygen. In concurrent flow, there will be no net gain of oxygen by the blood nor net loss of oxygen by the water once the oxygen levels in both fluids have equilibrated to around 50-50 between the blood and the water, it happens when both fluids are flowing in the same direction. On the other hand, the countercurrent flow occurs when two fluids flow in opposite directions, then afterward, the two fluids contact each other. The net flow of oxygen will always be from the water to the blood, it happens in a scenario where the water's oxygen concentration is slightly greater than in the blood.